11, 404 (2020). 7, 176185 (2012). Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Today, the commercial production of PHA has seen a revival, with companies such as Danimer Scientific (USA) and RWDC Industries (USA and Singapore) scaling up in light of confirmed contracts in the packaging and fast-moving consumer goods sectors106. However, copolymerization can negatively affect the properties of the material. Nutr. PLoS ONE 11, e01596681 (2016). Bio-derived polyethylene is chemically and physically identical to traditional polyethylene it does not biodegrade but can be recycled. Using more descriptive terminologies can be helpful: for example, bio-based durable polyethylene (bioPE) is made from biomass derivatives but is not readily biodegradable, polybutylene succinate (PBS) is typically fossil-based yet biodegradable (that is, easily hydrolysable), and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are biodegradable and bio-based, at least when the synthesizing microorganisms are grown on biomass. 9, 189 (2017). Owing to the environmental pollution associated with harvesting and incinerating fossil products, crude oil is considered a non-sustainable feedstock. Food Sci. Moshood, T. D. Expanding policy for biodegradable plastic products and market dynamics of bio-based plastics: challenges and opportunities. Choi, A. 3, 7 (2019). 29, 675685 (2011). CO2 generated through bioplastic incineration (blue arrow), aerobic composting or incineration of CH4 from anaerobic composting229 is a net-zero addition to the carbon cycle, as it is captured by photosynthesis into new biomass. Lingle, R. Bioplastics boost packaging film and paper barrier and performance. JCPRA https://www.jcpra.or.jp/Portals/0/resource/eng/JCPRAdocuments202012.pdf (2020). Plastics from proteins | Nature Reviews Chemistry PLA Bioplastics: What are they? - GreenCompostables.com Depending on type, bioplastics can offer improved circularity by using renewable (non-fossil) resources, a lower carbon footprint, biodegradation as an alternative end-of-life (EOL) option and improved material properties. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry define biobased polymer as: Biobased polymer derived from the biomass or issued from monomers derived from the biomass and which, at some stage in its processing into finished products, can be shaped by flow. Heliyon 5, e01810 (2019). However, production of bioplastics is increasing as the world looks for more sustainable options to petrochemical-based plastics. Improving Plastics Management: Trends, Policy Responses, and the Role of International Co-operation and Trade. Initial attempts to establish a closed material cycle are now being offered, and there are several pilot projects for corresponding sorting and recycling plants. The rise of molecular genetics and recombinant DNA technology after that time further spurred research, so that by the beginning of the 21st century the structures, methods of production, and applications for numerous types of bioplastics had become established. Five misperceptions surrounding the environmental impacts of single-use plastic. Independent Group of Scientists appointed by the Secretary-General. The major share of biopolymer market goes to starch blends, which contributes 21% of total production, followed by PBAT and PLA. "A Crossroads for Bioplastics: Exploring Product Developers' Challenges to Move beyond Petroleum-Based Plastics." Report 1722. J. Environ. Comprehensive summary of cradle-to-gate and cradle-to-grave life cycle assessments, highlighting the reduction in global warming potential for bioplastics but also challenges of life cycle assessment comparability. Tabuchi, H. & Choi-Schagrin, W. California Aims to Ban Recycling Symbols on Things That Arent Recyclable (New York Times, 2021). Article Bioplastics Resource Add to collection Bioplastics are plastic materials that are derived from biological materials. Eng. SEP, 2014, pp. Biodegradability studies of poly(butylene succinate) composites filled with sugarcane rind fiber. However, Ideonella sakaiensis 201-F6, a bacterium that was discovered in a Japanese recycling site, can depolymerize PET at ambient temperatures within 40 days201. Welle, F. Twenty years of PET bottle to bottle recycling - an overview. [44][45] Plasticisers typically as glycerol can make the processed chitosan or alginate films flexible. 3 December 2019 . NatureWorks Announces Key Milestones for Global Manufacturing Expansion with New 75kTa Facility for Producing Ingeo Biopolymer in Thailand (Business Wire, 2021). Recycl. Technol. Existing bioplastic labels need to be revised for application on both global and local scales they must convey widely recognized appropriate standards and still identify the EOL of plastics in the local market. Behrenfeld, M. J. et al. volume7,pages 117137 (2022)Cite this article. A wide variety of bioplastics such as PHA, PHB, and PLA have been introduced to address the environmental challenges associated with conventional petroleum-derived plastics. Int. (Whiteclouds 2018), 1926: Maurice Lemoigne invents polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) which is the first bioplastic made from bacteria. China, the worlds largest producer of single-use plastics, recently announced that it would ban non-recyclables other than degradable bioplastics by 2025 (ref.244). Express Polym. 84, 204210 (2013). Around 1.8 million tons of this is accounted for by short-lived or one-off plastic packaging such as films, bags, carrier bags, sacks or disposable cutlery and dishes. Consumer attitudes and concerns with bioplastics use: An - PLOS Executive Order on Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad (Biden Administration, 2021). Henry, B., Laitala, K. & Klepp, I. G. Microfibres from apparel and home textiles: Prospects for including microplastics in environmental sustainability assessment. Near this temperature, the amorphous chain mobility increases, which increases the susceptibility to microbial degradation. Varghese, S. A., Pulikkalparambil, H., Rangappa, S. M., Siengchin, S. & Parameswaranpillai, J. Technol. Report on the synthesis, properties and end of life of polyethylene furanoate, which is a high-barrier bioplastic soon to enter the market. Current situation and global perspective. The WEF, together with the Ellen MacArthur Foundation and McKinsey & Company, is promoting science-based policy initiatives for a circular plastics economy2. "A Review of the Environmental Impacts of Biobased Materials." This feedstock can then be fed into traditional refineries and polymerization factories58,142,199. Rev. Critical aspects in the life cycle assessment (LCA) of bio-based materialsreviewing methodologies and deriving recommendations. BPA, bisphenol A; EG, ethylene glycol; FDCA, 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid; HMF, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural; PS, polystyrene; TA, terephthalic acid. Fleckenstein, P., Rosenboom, J.-G., Storti, G. & Morbidelli, M. Synthesis of cyclic (ethylene furanoate) oligomers via cyclodepolymerization. Jan Kole, P., Lhr, A. J., Van Belleghem, F. G. A. J. For example, more than 1 billion tonnes of agricultural and food waste are produced globally each year, and ~20% of domestic waste is food waste71,72,73. ten Brink, P. et al. Environmental organizations such as Greenpeace as well as some US states, such as California and New York, favour laws to prevent companies from using recycling symbols for non-recyclable products, and instead aim to use extended producer responsibility (EPR) laws to foster the design of recyclable materials262,264. Although most commercial plastics are made from fossil resources, these materials can also be made from renewable resources and are commonly referred to as bioplastics. 46, Cibinong, Jawa Barat 16911, Indonesia Polymorphism and multiple melting behavior of bio-based poly(propylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate). TG-DSC, AFM, SEM and FTIR spectroscopy analysis were performed to assess the composition, phase transitions and chemical reaction capabilities of the film. However, improvements in metabolic and genetic engineering have produced strains of microbes and plants that may significantly improve yields and production capabilities while reducing overall costs. Opin. Bioplastics are made by heating a solution of cassava starch (tapioca: distilled water = 1:20) at 70 C for 1 hour while stirring. Custom compostability/biodegradability labels. Sustain. Anenberg, S. C. et al. Technische Potenzialanalyse zur Steigerung des Kunststoffrecyclings und des Rezyklateinsatzes [German]. Bioplastics must be recycled similar to fossil-based plastics to avoid plastic pollution; "drop-in" bioplastics (such as biopolyethylene) fit into existing recycling streams. Aliphatic polyanhydrides (such as poly(sebacic anhydride)) degrade over days, whereas aromatic polyanhydrides degrade over months to years. The ASTM 6400 standard is the regulatory framework for the United States and has similar requirements. Environ. However, PEF is also more thermally sensitive and, thus, requires more careful processing127,128,129. In packaging technology, bioplastics are seen as a sustainable alternative to environmentally harmful plastics. Soc. Improved information distribution and consistent global standards need to be established. 405, 1266831 (2021). Hann, S., Scholes, R., Lee, T., Ettlinger, S. & Jrgensen, H. Biobased and biodegradable plastics in Denmark. Chem. This makes the bioplastics compete with food production because the crops that produce bioplastics can also be used to feed people. These plastics are being widely used in the medical industry. Regarding bioplastics, the Conventions Open-ended Working Group recommends that nations clearly define and standardize the identification of bio(degradable) plastics, improve bioplastic production processes to become economically and ecologically competitive with fossil-based plastics and develop universal techno-economic analysis methodologies to quantify the environmental benefit of bioplastics179. In the USA, the decomposition of organic material (such as paper and food scraps) in the ~1,5002,000 operational landfills is the third largest CH4 emitter behind enteric fermentation (in farm animals) and natural gas systems226. Clean. 1 (ACS, 2020). & Gardossi, L. Renewable polymers and plastics: Performance beyond the green. Educating consumers and companies towards life cycle thinking will encourage a holistic view on plastic products beyond their obvious impacts associated with the use and disposal of plastics. Green Chem. Franklin Associates https://napcor.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Final-Revised-Virgin-PET-Resin-LCA.pdf (2020). The bioplastic solution was then poured into a 20 20 cm acrylic sheet and cooled at room temperature for 3 days, so that the bioplastic sheet was ready for mechanical strength test (ASTM D 882-75b Tensile Properties of Thin Plastic Sheeting) and for thermal properties test with Thermo Gravimetric Analyzer. The effect of increasing chitosan on the characteristics of bioplastic Chitosan is dissolvable in mild acidic conditions and thus can be easily processed into films by solution casting. Albertsson, A.-C. & Hakkarainen, M. Designed to degrade. Polym. [41][42][43] Alginate (usually sodium alginate or calcium alginate) is dissolvable in water so alginate solutions can be cast into films. Gravitational sinking and seabed currents lead to localized and concentrated deposits of microplastics in some sea-floor ecosystems38. Technol. Sustainable production of bio-based chemicals and polymers via integrated biomass refining and bioprocessing in a circular bioeconomy context. Journal of Industrial Ecology, vol. Ind. Bioplastics undergo similar steps during processing (e.g. Article Review of lignin conversion into useful chemicals. Coleman, C. & Dietz, E. Fact Sheet: Fossil Fuel Subsidies: A Closer Look at Tax Breaks and Societal Costs (EESI, 2019). 35, 12171256 (2010). Low oil prices, narrow profit margins and existing fossil-fuel subsidies reduce the cost-competitiveness of bio-based manufacturers, which represent a fragmented market of small entities and subdivisions of petrochemical companies. Instead, non-isocyanate bioPUs can be made from cyclic carbonates and diamines derived from vegetable oils93,139,140,141. Biden Administration. Polym. Gironi, F., and Vincenzo Piemonte. The methods for processing biomass to obtain vinyl monomers93, carboxylic acids94,95,96, alcohols90, amides93 and rubbers65,93 have been extensively reviewed. 72, 726731 (2006). As their name suggests, plastics can readily be molded into various shapes. Rel. Jarerat, A., Tokiwa, Y. In general, bioplastics behave similarly to conventional plastics during processing, so that the use of blown film lines and extruders is just as possible as thermoforming and deep-drawing. [11], Bioplastics called drop-in bioplastics are chemically identical to their fossil-fuel counterparts but made from renewable resources. & Adewale, K.) 319346 (CRC Press, 2015). Anaerobic digestion is feasible for several types of polymers, including thermoplastic starch, polycaprolactones and PHAs, as well as for PLA at elevated temperatures167. Science 368, 11401145 (2020). Blattmann, H., Lauth, M. & Mlhaupt, R. Flexible and bio-based nonisocyanate polyurethane (NIPU) foams. In this section, we discuss the EOL options for bioplastics, considering current and future recycling scenarios (Fig. The EN 13432 industrial standard must be met in order to claim that a plastic product is compostable in the European marketplace. 2). Health Perspect. Characteristics and potential of micro algal cultivation strategies: a review. Useful resource for market data on bioplastics. 16, 20200030 (2020). Most green plants produce this polysaccharide as an energy store. However, revision and global harmonization of these guidelines are required, as the conditions mentioned in these standards may not necessarily be met in local disposal settings and, thus, may confuse consumers and converters39,179,207. Renew. A tax on non-recycled plastic of 800 per tonne was implemented in 2021 to motivate manufacturing industries to adopt alternative recyclable, reusable or compostable materials242. PHA is more ductile and less elastic than other plastics, and it is also biodegradable. EOL, end of life. Their scope needs to be expanded to other plastic-intensive industries (including agriculture, textiles, medical and construction) and their implementation requires improvement, especially by harmonizing definitions of what is considered recyclable from a local and chemical perspective187. J. TV Austria Belgium. PU Mag. Increased plastic pollution due to COVID-19 pandemic: challenges and recommendations. Plastic products are often labelled to indicate their chemical composition, whether they can be recycled, are bio-based and/or can be biodegraded and under which conditions. Moreover, biodegradability is not a unique selling point of bioplastics. ErgebnisberichtUmfrage [German]. Technol. Rokicki, G., Parzuchowski, P. G. & Mazurek, M. Non-isocyanate polyurethanes: synthesis, properties, and applications. The properties of a plastic, like those of all polymers, are defined by the monomers in the chain and by the number of links and cross-links in its structure. Market Report (Technavio, 2019). [68] The high increase in eutrophication and acidification caused by bioplastics is also caused by using chemical fertilizer in the cultivation of renewable raw materials to produce bioplastics. Biodegradable plastics are commonly produced with renewable raw materials, micro-organisms, petrochemicals, or combinations of all three. We start by briefly reviewing the environmental issues relating to plastic production and disposal, before outlining the principles of a circular economy. Environ. Tullo, A. H. Will the Biodegradable Plastic PHA Finally Deliver? Adv. A related material, cellulose acetate, is used to make cigarette filters, which are a notable litter issue. The compound annual growth rate in global bioplastic packaging is 18%232. Several bans on single-use plastic were temporarily reverted, reusable shopping bags were banned and, in some places, traditionally recyclable plastic food containers were considered hazardous, owing to potential pathogenic contamination40. Rev. Crucially, both the hard and soft plastics undergo complete biodegradation within 24 h . To guide converters and consumers in their purchasing choices, existing (bio)plastic identification standards and life cycle assessment guidelines need revision and homogenization. Rev. Deutsche Umwelthilfe https://www.duh.de/fileadmin/user_upload/download/Projektinformation/Kreislaufwirtschaft/Verpackungen/180920_DUH_Ergebnisbericht_Kompostierungsumfrage.pdf (2018). The global production of bioplastics in 2018 was estimated to be 2.11 million tons and has been expected to rise to 2.62 million tons by 2023 ( Zhang et al., 2019 ). Stud. The CH4 can then be captured and burned, which produces CO2 and H2O, and the heat and energy can be recovered for use. Bioresour. Biobased poly(ethylene furanoate-co-ethylene succinate) copolyesters: solid state structure, melting point depression and biodegradability. Technol. The companies producing these materials have announced scale-up plans on the order of 60kt and 75kt in the coming years, respectively233,234. J. 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Characteristics of Bioplastic Made from Cassava Starch Filled with Polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT) is a biodegradable aromaticaliphatic copolyester sold as Ecoflex by BASF (Germany) and under other brand names by several suppliers in Asia. & Greiner, A. Bio-based polycarbonate from limonene oxide and CO2 with high molecular weight, excellent thermal resistance, hardness and transparency. There are three main groups: Biobased (or partially biobased), durable plastics such as biobased polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (so-called drop-in solutions), biobased technical performance polymers, such as numerous polyamides (PA), or (partly) biobased polyurethanes (PUR); https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-021-00407-8. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. For example, wheat gluten and casein show promising properties as a raw material for different biodegradable polymers. Adv. Fueling Plastics - Center for International Environmental Law 19 (CIEL, 2017). Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. 2, 2015, pp. These properties are determined by the structure of the repeating building blocks of the polymers: the monomers. Accelerating the degradation of polyolefins through additives and blending. 4, 311330 (2020). Aliphatic (or non-aromatic) polyesters are degradable because the ester groups in their backbones can be easily cleaved by hydrolysis or enzymatic activity. Gironi, F., and Vincenzo Piemonte. Eng. J. The South American sugar industry, for example, has decided to expand PHB production to an industrial scale. PVA is the only vinyl polymer that is readily biodegradable, which is believed to occur by enzymatic oxidation of the hydroxyl groups into diketones, which are then hydrolysed and cleaved145,146,147. In contrast, packaging made of thermoplastic starch can be disposed of in household compost. 38, 34843504 (2009). J. Nat. & Ragas, A. M. J. Kannan, G., Grieshaber, S. E. & Zhao, W. in Handbook of Thermoplastics 2nd edn (eds Olabisi, O. 10.1088/1757-899X/1122/1/012099 CC BY 3.0 Authors: Halimatuddahliana Nasution University of Sumatera Utara G. Wulandari Abstract The presence of glycerol as plasticizer can improve elasticity of. "Bioplastics and Petroleum-Based Plastics: Strengths and Weaknesses." Given the trade-offs, the implementation of bioplastics faces several challenges (Box1). In 2010, Metabolix and Archer Daniels Midland opened a plant for the production of 55kt of PHA per year in Iowa (USA)237. Bioplastics that are 100% bio-based are currently produced at a scale of ~2 million tonnes per year and are considered a part of future circular economies to help achieve some of the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals, such as by diverting from fossil resources, introducing new recycling or degradation pathways and using less toxic reagents and solvents in production processes5,8,9,10,11.
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